Peer-reviewed research summaries, mechanism deep dives, and stack analysis. Every article references published literature and is written for researchers and science enthusiasts.
Retatrutide produced 24.2% body weight loss in Phase 2 — the largest ever recorded in an obesity drug trial. Here's what the research shows about how it works, how it compares to tirzepatide and semaglutide, and what's coming in Phase 3.
The FDA has been systematically removing research peptides from the compounding market since 2023. Here's where things stand in 2026, which peptides are affected, and what it means for the research community.
Tirzepatide is a first-in-class dual GIP/GLP-1 receptor agonist that is producing weight loss results exceeding anything previously seen with a pharmacological agent. Here's the science behind why it works better than semaglutide.
Epithalon is a synthetic tetrapeptide derived from the pineal gland. It activates telomerase, extends telomere length, and has shown lifespan extension in multiple animal models. Here is the science behind the most studied longevity peptide.
Selank is a synthetic heptapeptide developed in Russia with a 30-year research history. It has anxiolytic, nootropic, and antidepressant properties — without the sedation or dependence of conventional anxiety medications.
CJC-1295 is a modified form of growth hormone-releasing hormone that lasts days instead of minutes. This guide explains its mechanism, what the human trials show, and how it compares to other GH-stimulating peptides.
Thymosin Alpha-1 is approved as a pharmaceutical treatment in over 35 countries for hepatitis B, hepatitis C, and immune deficiencies. Here is an in-depth look at how this peptide regulates immunity and what the evidence shows.
PT-141 is the only FDA-approved treatment for sexual dysfunction that works through the central nervous system rather than vascular mechanisms. Here's what you need to know about how it works and what the research shows.
Ipamorelin is a selective growth hormone secretagogue with one of the cleanest safety profiles in its class. This article explains how it stimulates GH release, what research has found, and why it is considered a gentler alternative to other GH-stimulating peptides.
TB-500 is a synthetic version of Thymosin Beta-4, a naturally occurring peptide involved in cell migration, wound healing, and inflammation regulation. Here's what the research shows about its recovery potential.
Semaglutide went from a diabetes drug to the most-prescribed weight loss treatment in history. This guide breaks down the science of how it works, what the trials show, and what you should know.
BPC-157 is one of the most researched peptides for musculoskeletal and visceral pain. Here is what the science says about how it works, what conditions it has been studied for, and what researchers have found.
Practical guide to hexarelin vial reconstitution, injection volume tables, standard research dosing for GH secretagogue and cardiac protection research, and cycle guidance.
Complete guide to MK-677 oral dosing protocols, timing considerations, standard research dose ranges, and cycle guidance for GH secretagogue research without injection.
Complete guide to tesamorelin vial reconstitution, injection volume calculation, standard research dosing for visceral fat reduction and GH research, and administration protocol guidance.
Practical guide to AOD-9604 vial reconstitution, injection volume calculation, standard research dosing for lipolysis and fat loss research, and fasting protocol guidance.
Complete guide to Epithalon vial reconstitution, injection volume tables, standard research dosing for telomere lengthening and anti-aging research, and cycle protocol guidance.
Practical guide to Semax reconstitution and administration via intranasal drops or subcutaneous injection, with dose tables and cognitive/neuroprotective research protocol guidance.
Complete guide to Selank reconstitution for intranasal and subcutaneous administration, injection volume tables, standard research dosing for anxiolytic and nootropic research.
Practical guide to PT-141 vial reconstitution, injection volume tables, standard research dosing for sexual dysfunction research, and timing guidance.
Research guide to Melanotan II vial reconstitution, injection volume calculation, standard dosing protocols for tanning and libido research, and administration frequency guidelines.
Research guide to semaglutide vial reconstitution, structured dose escalation tables, injection volume calculation, and standard weekly injection protocols for GLP-1 research.
Research guide to tirzepatide vial reconstitution, dose escalation tables, injection volume calculation, and standard administration protocols for metabolic and obesity research.
Practical guide to CJC-1295 (Mod GRF 1-29 and with DAC) reconstitution, injection volume calculation, and standard research dosing protocols for GH axis stimulation.
Step-by-step guide to ipamorelin reconstitution, injection volume calculations, and standard research dosing protocols for growth hormone secretagogue research.
Complete guide to sermorelin vial reconstitution, injection volume tables, standard research dosage ranges, and timing protocols for GH-axis stimulation research.
Practical guide to TB-500 vial reconstitution, injection volume tables, standard research dose ranges, and administration frequency for systemic tissue repair protocols.
Complete practical guide to BPC-157 vial reconstitution, injection volume calculation, standard research dosing ranges, and administration frequency for tissue repair research.
A practical guide to reconstituting GHK-Cu vials, calculating injection volumes, and understanding standard research dosing protocols including frequency and cycle length.
Multiple peptide classes address fat loss through different mechanisms: GLP-1 agonists (appetite suppression), GH fragment peptides (lipolysis), and GHRH/GHS stacks (GH-driven fat metabolism). This guide reviews the research evidence across each category and what they show for adipose tissue reduction.
TB-500 is the synthetic analogue of the 17-amino acid bioactive domain of Thymosin Beta-4 (Tβ4). This comparison explains the relationship between the full protein and the fragment, whether they produce equivalent effects, and what the research shows about each form.
Matrixyl (palmitoyl peptides) and Argireline (Acetyl Hexapeptide-3) are the two most studied cosmetic peptide categories, but they work through entirely different mechanisms — collagen stimulation vs neurotransmitter inhibition. This comparison examines when each is appropriate and what the evidence shows for combination use.
Semaglutide (Ozempic/Wegovy) and liraglutide (Victoza/Saxenda) are both GLP-1 receptor agonists, but semaglutide's albumin binding and DPP-IV modifications give it a 7-day half-life vs liraglutide's 13 hours — producing meaningfully different efficacy profiles in clinical trials.
NMN and NR are both NAD+ precursors that replenish declining nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide levels with aging. This comparison examines their metabolic pathways, bioavailability, clinical trial data, and which has stronger evidence for specific aging applications.
Sermorelin stimulates the pituitary to release its own GH; exogenous HGH replaces GH directly. These approaches produce fundamentally different physiological profiles — different GH patterns, different feedback mechanisms, and different risk considerations. This comparison examines the research evidence for each.
Collagen peptide supplements are among the most commercially successful peptide products, but what does the peer-reviewed research actually show? This review examines the evidence for skin, joint, bone, and gut applications, covering bioavailability, mechanism, and clinical trial data.
LL-37 is the only human cathelicidin antimicrobial peptide — a component of the innate immune system that kills bacteria, viruses, and fungi while also promoting wound healing and modulating inflammation. This review examines its mechanism, infection research, and emerging therapeutic applications.
KPV (Lys-Pro-Val) is a tripeptide derived from the C-terminus of alpha-MSH with potent anti-inflammatory effects in gut tissue. This review examines its MC1R-independent mechanism, colitis research data, and emerging evidence for IBD applications.
IGF-1 LR3 is a long-acting analogue of insulin-like growth factor-1 with reduced IGF-binding protein affinity, producing prolonged anabolic signaling. This review examines its receptor pharmacology, satellite cell activation, and what preclinical data show about muscle hypertrophy and repair.
Matrixyl is a brand name for palmitoyl peptide compounds — primarily Matrixyl (Pal-GHK) and Matrixyl 3000 (Pal-GHK + Pal-KTTKS) — that signal fibroblasts to synthesize collagen. This review examines the TGF-beta mechanism, clinical trial data, and why these peptides are among the most evidence-backed skincare compounds.
Argireline (Acetyl Hexapeptide-3) is a SNAP-25-mimicking peptide that inhibits neurotransmitter release at the neuromuscular junction. This review examines its mechanism, clinical trial data for wrinkle reduction, and how it compares to botulinum toxin in research models.
Thymosin Alpha-1 (Tα1) is a 28-amino acid thymic peptide with documented immune-stimulating effects in viral infection, cancer, and immunocompromised patients. This review examines its mechanism, clinical evidence from hepatitis B/C and COVID-19 research, and its unique position among immune-modulating peptides.
GHRP-2 is a synthetic hexapeptide GHS-R1a agonist with among the highest GH pulse amplitudes of any research peptide. This review covers its mechanism, GH/IGF-1 data, cortisol profile, and how it compares to other GHS compounds in research stacks.
Ipamorelin is the most selective synthetic GHS-R1a agonist, producing robust GH pulses with minimal cortisol or prolactin elevation. This deep-dive reviews its pharmacology, research data, and why it has become the standard GH secretagogue in research stacks.
NAD+ and Epithalon are both studied for anti-aging properties, but NAD+ works through sirtuin activation and energy metabolism, while Epithalon activates telomerase and regulates circadian gene expression. This review compares their mechanisms and evidence.
Epithalon and MOTS-c are both studied in aging research but through entirely different mechanisms: Epithalon activates telomerase and restores circadian genes; MOTS-c is a mitochondria-derived peptide that activates AMPK and promotes metabolic resilience. This review compares their evidence.
Tesamorelin is FDA-approved for HIV-associated lipodystrophy with documented visceral fat reduction data; CJC-1295 (Mod GRF 1-29) is a widely researched GH-stimulating GHRH analogue without clinical approval. This review compares their pharmacology and evidence.
PT-141 (bremelanotide) and kisspeptin both increase sexual arousal in research models, but through completely different neurological pathways. PT-141 acts via melanocortin MC4R; kisspeptin acts via GPR54 in the hypothalamus to increase GnRH pulsatility.
Hexarelin and GHRP-2 are the two most potent GHSPs in terms of GH pulse amplitude, but hexarelin requires cycling due to faster receptor desensitization, and has unique cardiac research applications independent of GH. This comparison reviews the evidence.
CJC-1295 with DAC and CJC-1295 without DAC (Mod GRF 1-29) are the same peptide backbone with fundamentally different pharmacokinetics. One produces pulsatile GH; the other produces sustained GH elevation. This comparison explains why the distinction matters enormously for research.
GHK-Cu and BPC-157 are both studied extensively for tissue repair, but they operate through entirely different mechanisms. GHK-Cu is a copper-chelating tripeptide that regulates gene expression; BPC-157 is a systemic healing peptide acting through NO, VEGF, and GH receptor pathways.
Melanotan I and Melanotan II both stimulate melanogenesis via MC1R activation, but differ in their receptor selectivity, sexual effects, and side effect profiles. This review compares the research evidence for both alpha-MSH analogues.
Selank and Semax are both nootropic peptides developed in Russia from the 1980s onward. They have distinct mechanisms — Selank is anxiolytic and serotonin/GABA-modulating; Semax is pro-cognitive and BDNF-stimulating. This comparison reviews their research profiles.
Fragment 176-191 and AOD-9604 are both derived from the C-terminal region of human growth hormone and studied for fat-burning activity. This comparison examines their structures, mechanisms, and research evidence for lipolysis.
CJC-1295 and sermorelin are both GHRH analogues that stimulate pituitary GH release, but differ in half-life, DPP-IV resistance, and whether they preserve physiological GH pulsatility. This comparison reviews the key research differences.
Ipamorelin and GHRP-6 both stimulate GH release via GHS-R1a, but GHRP-6 has a pronounced appetite-stimulating effect via motilin receptors that ipamorelin lacks. This review examines when each is the more appropriate research choice.
Ipamorelin and GHRP-2 are both ghrelin receptor agonists used to stimulate GH release, but they differ significantly in selectivity, potency, and side effect profiles. This comparison reviews the research evidence for each.
BPC-157 and TB-500 are the two most researched tissue-repair peptides. This comparison examines their distinct mechanisms, tissue targets, and what preclinical research reveals about their individual and combined effects.
SS-31 (Elamipretide) is a mitochondria-targeted tetrapeptide that associates with cardiolipin in the inner mitochondrial membrane. Research shows it restores mitochondrial function in aging, heart failure, and ischemia-reperfusion injury models.
Semaglutide (GLP-1 RA) and tirzepatide (GIP/GLP-1 dual agonist) have transformed obesity and diabetes research. This article compares their mechanisms, head-to-head clinical data, and what the emerging research tells us about dual agonism.
Ovagen (EAEN) is a short tetrapeptide from Khavinson's program originally derived from liver tissue, now studied for potential hepatoprotective and gene regulatory effects in aged hepatocyte models.
Palmitoyl Tetrapeptide-7 (Pal-GQPR) is a lipopeptide developed for cosmetic research that suppresses pro-inflammatory IL-6 signaling in skin while stimulating collagen and hyaluronan synthesis in dermal fibroblasts.
Cortagen is a short tetrapeptide from Khavinson's research program, derived from the cerebral cortex. Research in neural cell models and aged rodents shows it influences cell survival gene expression and may promote neuronal regeneration.
CJC-1295 is a modified GHRH analogue designed to resist enzymatic degradation. With DAC (Drug Affinity Complex) modification, it has a half-life of 6-8 days, producing sustained GH elevation. Without DAC (CJC-1295 no DAC / Mod GRF 1-29), it acts more like physiological GHRH.
TB-500 is a synthetic fragment of Thymosin Beta-4, a ubiquitous intracellular actin-sequestering protein. Research shows it promotes healing in cardiac muscle, tendons, skin wounds, and neural tissue through actin dynamics and VEGF upregulation.
Epithalon (AEDG) is a synthetic tetrapeptide derived from the pineal gland peptide epithalamin. Research shows it activates telomerase, extends telomere length in aged cell cultures, and extends lifespan in multiple animal models.
KED (Lys-Glu-Asp) is a short tripeptide from the thymus found to influence gene expression in aging cell cultures. Research suggests it may modulate chromatin accessibility and transcription factor activity in aged cells.
FOXO4-DRI is a D-amino acid retro-inverso peptide designed to disrupt the interaction between FOXO4 and p53 in senescent cells. Research in aged mice shows it selectively promotes apoptosis in senescent cells while sparing healthy tissue.
Mechano Growth Factor (MGF) is a splice variant of IGF-1 produced locally in muscle in response to mechanical stress. Research shows it activates muscle satellite cells and initiates repair cascades distinct from systemic IGF-1.
Ipamorelin is the cleanest GHRP available for research, producing GH release with minimal cortisol or prolactin elevation. Combined with sermorelin, it creates a highly selective GH-releasing stack with a strong preclinical evidence base.
When sermorelin (a GHRH analogue) and GHRP-2 (a ghrelin mimetic) are combined, research shows a synergistic amplification of GH secretion that significantly exceeds the effect of either peptide alone.
Sermorelin is a synthetic analogue of growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH). This review examines how it interacts with somatotroph cells in the pituitary gland and what the research shows about its GH-stimulating effects.
An in-depth look at the cellular and molecular mechanisms by which BPC-157 promotes healing in tendon, ligament, gut, and neural tissue in preclinical research models.
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